intelligence,personality,achievement and cognitive test a short notes

§  Definition of psychological assessment:

Psychological assessment is the gathering and integration of psychology related data for the purpose of making psychology related evaluation that is accomplished through the use of tools such as tests, interview, case studies, behavioral observation and specially designed apparatus and measurement procedures.

§  Definition of psychological testing:

Psychological testing is the process of measuring psychology related variables by means of devices or procedures designed to obtain a sample of behavior.

§  Different types of psychological assessments:

Ø  Intelligence assessment

Ø  Personality assessment

Ø  Aptitude assessment

Ø  Achievement assessment

Ø  Neurological assessment

INTELLIGENCE ASSESSMENT

§  Definition of intelligence:

Intelligence is the capacity to acquire and apply knowledge.

It is the capacity for:

    learning

    reason logically

    plan effectively

    infer perceptively

    make sound judgments and solve problems

    grasp and visualize concepts

      pay attention

    be intuitive

    find the right words and thoughts with facility

    cope with, adjust to, and make the most new of situations

According to Feldman, intelligence may also define as:

“Intelligence is the capacity to understand the world, think rationally and use resources effectively when faced with challenges.”

    Definition of intelligence assessment:

Intelligence assessment is the development of behavior forecasts or recommended courses of action to the leadership of an organization, based on wide ranges of available overt and covert information.

§  Nature of intelligence:

            Intelligence is not acquired after sustained labor. It is a gift from nature. Intelligence is not memory. An intelligent person may have poor memory. Intelligence is not a skill which a worker acquires after planned practice. Intelligence is not a guarantee of a good behavior of the individual.

            To understand the nature of intelligence we need to know the classification intelligence as given by E.L. Thorndike and Garret:

1.      Concrete Intelligence: 

            It is the ability of an individual to comprehend actual situations and to react to them adequately. The concrete intelligence is evident from various activities of daily life. This type of intelligence is applicable when the individual is handling concrete objects or medicines. Engineers, mechanics and architects have this type of intelligence.

2.     Abstract Intelligence:

            It is the ability to respond to words, numbers and symbols. Abstract intelligence is required in the ordinary academic subjects in the school. This is acquired after an intensive study of books and literature. Good teachers, lawyers, doctors, philosophers etc. have this type of intelligence.

3.      Social Intelligence:

            It means the ability of an individual to react to social situations of daily life. Adequate adjustment in social situations is the index of social intelligence. Persons having this type of intelligence know the art of winning friends and influencing them. Leaders, ministers, member of diplomatic sources and social workers have it.

            Thus we see the nature of intelligence as the ability for adjustment to environment, ability to perceive relationship between various objects and methods, ability to solve problems, ability to think independently, ability to learn maximum in minimum period of time, ability to benefit from one’s own experience and the experience of others.

    Characteristics of Intelligence:

o   The main features of Intelligence are the following:

o   Intelligence is an innate natural endowment of the child.

o   It helps the child in maximum learning in minimum period of time.

o   The child is able to foresee the future and plan accordingly.

o   The child is able to take advantage of his previous experiences.

o   The child faces the future with compliance.

o   He develops a sense of discrimination between right or wrong.

o   The developmental period of intelligence is from birth to adolescence.

o   There is a minor difference in the development of intelligence between boys and girls.

o   There are individual differences with regard to the intelligence between boys and girls.

o   Intelligence is mostly determined by heredity but a suitable environment necessary to improve it.

§  Theories of intelligence:

1.     Spearman’s two-factor theory:

It was developed in 1904 by an English Psychologist, Charles Spearman, who proposed that intellectual abilities were comprised of two factors : one general ability or common ability known as ‘G’ factor and the other a group of specific abilities known as ‘S’ factor. ‘G’ factor is universal inborn ability. Greater ‘G’ in an individual leads to greater success in life.

      Characteristics of "g" factor:

o   It is universal inborn ability.

o   It is general mental energy.

o   It is constant in the sense that for any individual in respect of all the correlated abilities, it remains the same.

o   The amount of "g" differs from individual to individual.

o   It is used in every life activity.

o   Greater the "g" in an individual, greater the success in life.

o   It is merely a value of magnitude and not something concrete.

‘S’ factor is acquired from the environment. It varies from activity to activity in the same individual.

      Characteristics of "s" factor:

o   It is learnt and acquired in the environment

o   It varies from activity to activity in the same individual.

o   Individuals differ in the amount of "s" ability.

2.     Thorndike’s multifactor theory:

Thorndike believed that there was nothing like General Ability. Each mental activity requires an aggregate of different set of abilities. He distinguished the following four attributes of intelligence:

o   Level—refers to the level of difficulty of a task that can be solved.

o   Range—refers to a number of tasks at any given degree of difficulty.

o   Area—means the total number of situations at each level to which the individual is able to respond.

o   Speed—is the rapidity with which we can respond to the items.

3.     Thurstone’s theory : Primary mental abilities/Group factor theory:

He stated that intelligent activities are not an expression of innumerable highly specific factors, as Thorndike claimed. Nor is it the expression primarily of a general factor that pervades all mental activities. He stated that:

There are a number of groups of mental abilities, each of which has its own primary factor, giving the group a functional unity and cohesiveness. Each of these primary factors is said to be relatively independent of the others.

      Thurstone’s six primary factors:

        I.            The Number Factor (N)—Ability to do Numerical Calculations rapidly and accurately.

     II.            The Verbal Factor (V)—Found in tests involving Verbal Comprehension.

  III.            The Space Factor (S)—Involved in any task in which the subject manipulates the imaginary object in space.

  IV.            Memory (M)—Involving ability to memorize quickly.

    V.            Word Fluency Factor (W)—Involved whenever the subject is asked to think of isolated words at a rapid rate.

  VI.            The Reasoning Factor (R)— Found in tasks that require a subject to discover a rule or principle involved in a series or groups of letters.

Based on these factors Thurstone constructed a new test of intelligence known as ‘‘Test of Primary Mental Abilities (PMA).’’

4.     Guilford’s model of structure of intelligence:

Guilford (1967, 1985, 1988) proposed a three dimensional structure of intellect model. According to Guilford every intellectual task can be classified according to it’s:

       I.            Content

(He further divided content into five categories):

ü  Visual,

ü   Auditory,

ü  Symbolic,

ü  Semantic, and

ü  Behavioral.

    II.            Mental operation involved

(He classified operations into five categories, namely):

ü  Cognition,

ü  Memory retention,

ü  Memory recording,

ü  Divergent production, and

ü  Convergent production and evaluation.

 III.            Product resulting from the operation

(He classified products into six categories, namely):

ü  Units,

ü  Classes,

ü  Relations,

ü  Systems,

ü  Transformations and

ü  Implications.

5.     Cattell’s Fluid and Crystallized theory:

o   Fluid intelligence:

The fluid aspect of this theory says that intelligence is a basic capacity due to genetic potentiality while it is affected by the past and new experiences.

o   Crystallized intelligence:

The crystallized theory is a capacity resultant of experiences, learning and environment.

6.     Gardner’s theory of Multiple Intelligence:

Howard Gardner in his book ‘‘Frames of Mind, The Theory of Multiple Intelligence’’ (1983), puts forth a new and different view of human intellectual competencies. He argues boldly and cogently that we are all born with potential to develop a multiplicity of Intelligence.

The multiple intelligence theory is that people possess eight types of intelligence:

o   Linguistic

o   Logical

o   Spatial

o   Musical

o   Motor ability

o   Interpersonal

o   Intrapersonal

o   Naturalistic intelligence

7.     Sternberg’s triarchic theory:

Psychologist Robert Sternberg (1985) has constructed a three pronged or triarchic theory of intelligence. The Three types are:

o   Analytical Intelligence:

It is what we generally think of as academic ability. It enables us to solve problems and to acquire new knowledge. Problem solving skills include encoding information, combining and comparing pieces of information and generating a solution.

o   Creative Intelligence:

It is defined by the abilities to cope with novel situations and to profit from experience. The ability to quickly relate novel situations to familiar situations (that is, to perceive similarities and differences) fosters adaptation. Moreover, as a result of experience, we also become able to solve problems more rapidly.

o   Practical Intelligence:

It enables people to adapt to the demands of their environment. For example, keeping a job by adapting one’s behavior to the employer’s requirements is adaptive. But if the employer is making unreasonable demands, reshaping the environment (by changing the employer’s attitudes) or selecting an alternate environment (by finding a more suitable job) is also adaptive.

8.     Theory of Emotional Intelligence:

According to Goleman (1995), Emotional Intelligence consists of ‘‘abilities such as being able to motivate oneself and persist in the face of frustrations; to control impulse and delay gratification; to regulate one’s moods and keep distress from swamping the ability to think : to empathize, and to hope’’. The main areas are: knowing one’s emotions, managing emotions, motivating oneself, recognizing emotions in others, and handling relationships.

9.     Eysenck’s Structural Theory:

Eysenck discovered the neurological correlates of intelligence. He identified three correlates of intelligence i.e.

o   Reaction time,

o   Inspection time and

o   Average evoked potential.

First two are observed behavior. Third behavior is description of mental waves. Brighter individual progressively takes less time in responding. They show less variability in reaction time. Their inspection time is also less as compared to less intelligent. Average evoked potential is often measured by the wavelength in electroencephalogram and complexities of waveform. He found that the waves of intelligent individuals are complex.

10.  Ceci’s Biological Theory:

Ceci (1990) proposed that there are multiple cognitive potentials. These multiple intelligence’s are biologically based and place limits on mental processes. These are closely linked to the challenges and opportunities in the individual’s environment. In his view, context is essential to the demonstration of cognitive abilities. By context, he means domain of knowledge and other factors such as personalities, motivation and education. Context can be mental, social or physical.

§  Tests used to measure intelligence

Psychologists define intelligence testing as a method for assessing an individual’s mental aptitudes and comparing them with others using numerical scores.

1.     Intelligence Quotient (IQ):

Measure of intelligence that takes into account a child’s mental and chronological age

IQ Score = MA / CA x 100

o   Mental age (MA):

The typical intelligence level found for people at a given chronological age is called mental age.

o   Chronological age (CA):

The actual age of the child taking the intelligence test is called chronological age.

People whose mental age is equal to their chronological age will always have an IQ of 100. If the chronological age exceeds mental age – below average intelligence (below 100). If the mental age exceeds the chronological age – above average intelligence (above 100). 

The normal distribution: most of the population falls in the middle range of scores between 84 and 116.

o   Very Superior Intelligence (gifted) - Above 130

o   Superior Intelligence - 120 to 129

o   High Average Intelligence - 110 to 119

o   Average Intelligence - 90 to 109

o   Low Average Intelligence - 80 to 89

o   Borderline Intellectual Functioning - 71 to 79

o   Mild Mental Retardation - 55 to 70

o   Moderate Retardation - 40 to 54

o   Severe Mental Retardation - 25 to 39

o   Profound Mental Retardation - Below 25

Intelligence tests were developed for the practical function of selecting students for admission or placement in schools. Originally these tests were not based on any theory of intelligence. They defined intelligence as the ability to do well in school.

2.     Stanford Binet fifth edition (SB5):

Authors: Gale H. Roid, 2003

Type: Cognitive ability assessment

Purpose: Individually administered assessment of intelligence and cognitive abilities

Measures: 2 to 85+ years

Ages: 4 to 10 years

Administration Time: Approximately 5 minutes per subtest

Scoring: SB5 ScoringPro Software

It is a standardized test that measures intelligence and cognitive abilities in children and adults, from age two through mature adulthood. This test was developed to identify children who had serious intellectual difficulties such that they would not succeed in the public school system and who should not be placed in the same classes with other students. This test measured things that were necessary for school success such as understanding and using language, computational skills, memory, and the ability to follow instructions.

Administration and interpretation of results of the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale requires a competent examiner who is trained in psychology and individual intellectual assessment, preferably a psychologist.

How it works: This test assesses abilities in five basic areas. These include:

o   Fluid reasoning

o   Knowledge

o   Quantitative reasoning

o   Visual spatial processing

o   Working memory       

Reliability: Using the split half method, and correcting with the Spearman-Brown formula, reliability coefficients were extremely high for the Full Scale Score (.98).  The Nonverbal (.95) and Verbal (.96), showed excellent stability, and the Abbreviated Battery (.91) is also considered excellent as it contains only two subtests.  The five factor index scores were all above 90, and were higher than the subtest scales, which were however comparable to other cognitive tests with ranges from .84 to .89.

Uses:  The SB5 helps to diagnose a wide variety of developmental disabilities and exceptionalities and may also be useful in:

Ø  Clinical and neuropsychological assessment

Ø  Early childhood assessment

Ø  Psycho educational evaluations for special education placements

Ø  Adult social security and workers’ compensation evaluations

Ø  Providing information for interventions such as IFSPs, IEPs, career assessment, industrial selection, and adult neuropsychological treatment

Ø  Forensic contexts

Ø  Research on abilities and aptitudes

v Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales for Early Childhood (Early SB5):

The Early SB5 is a specialized version of the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales; Fifth Edition (SB5) for use with young children ages 2:0 through 7:3 years.

3.     Wechsler Scales:

v Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Fourth Edition (WAIS-IV):

Age Range: Individuals 16:0-90:11

Qualification Level: C

Administration: Pencil-and-Paper or web-based 

Completion Time: 59-100 minutes for core subtests

Scores/Interpretation: FSIQ, Index scores, subtest level scaled scores

WAIS measures overall intelligence and 11 other aspects related to intelligence that are designed to assess clinical and educational problems. It was designed to assess the cognitive ability of adolescents and adults; provides subtest and composite scores that represent intellectual functioning in specific cognitive domains, as well as a composite score that represents general intellectual ability. This instruments aids in examining the relationship between intellectual functional and memory.  A common purpose for the WAIS is for educational planning and placement with older adolescents and adults.

o   Subsets of WAIS:

ü  Block design

ü  Similarities

ü  Digit span

ü  Matrix reasoning

ü  Vocabulary

ü  Arithmetic

ü  Symbol search

ü  Visual puzzles

ü  Information

ü  Coding

ü  Letter-number sequencing

ü  Figure weights

ü  Comprehension

ü  Cancellation

ü  Picture completion

Reliability and Validity: The test-retest reliabilities ranged from 0.70 (7 subscales) to 0.90 (2 subscales).  Inter-scorer coefficients were very high, all being above 0.90.  According to the test manual, the instrument targets three are – psycho educational disability, neuro psychiatric and organic dysfunction, and giftedness.  The WAIS correlated highly with the Stanford Binet IV test (0.88) and had high concordance with various measures:  memory, language, dexterity, motor speed, attention, and cognitive ability.

Administration, Analysis and Reporting:  Statistics Solutions consists of a team of professional methodologists and statisticians that can assist the student or professional researcher in administering the survey instrument, collecting the data, conducting the analyses and explaining the results.

v Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Fifth Edition (WISC-V):

Age range: 6.0–17.11 years

How it works: This test is divided into 15 subtests that assess a range of areas. Results are totaled up to provide one Full Scale IQ score. Sub-scores are also tallied for four other areas. These include

Ø  Verbal comprehension,

Ø  Nonverbal and fluid reasoning,

Ø  Working memory and

Ø  Processing speed.

o   Sub tests types of WISC-V:

ü  Information

ü  Similarities                                        VC

ü  Vocabulary

ü  Comprehension

ü  Block design

ü  Visual puzzles                                    VS

ü  Matrix reasoning

ü  Figure weights

ü  Picture concepts                                   FR

ü  Arithmetic

ü  Digit span

ü  Picture span                                        WM

ü  Letter-number sequencing

ü  Coding

ü  Symbol search                                     PS

ü  Cancellation

o   Ability Classification of WISC-V:

Standard Scores	Qualitative Descriptions	Percent of Cases
130 and above	Extremely High	2.2 %
120 – 129	Very High	6.7 %
110 – 119	High Average	16.1 %
90 – 109	Average	50 %
80 – 89	Low Average	16.1 %
70 – 79	Very Low	6.7 %
69 and below	Extremely Low	2.2%

     

4.     Woodcock Johnson III Tests of Cognitive Abilities:

Purpose:  Designed to measure, together with the WJ III Ach, intellectual abilities and academic achievement.

Age range: 2–90+ years

Time:  60-70 minutes.

Authors:  Richard Woodcock, Nancy Mather, Kevin McGrew

o   Sub scales: 

ü  Verbal Ability,

ü  Thinking Ability,

ü  Cognitive Efficiency,

ü  Supplemental,

ü  Intra-Cognitive Discrepancies,

ü  Predicted Achievement and

ü  General Intellectual Ability (GIA)

How it works: Kids are given a series of tests on a number of topics. These include verbal comprehension, spatial relations and visual-auditory learning. The tests can take 60 to 90 minutes.

Scoring:  Requires scoring during testing to determine basal and ceiling levels. Raw scores are totaled and converted into age and grade equivalents, percentile ranks, and discrepancy scores with use of the Scoring Tables.  Comp score and Profiles Program are used for all other scoring. The WJ III COG provides two indices of general cognitive functioning (i.e., intelligence) by means of the General Intellectual Ability (GIA) score and the Brief Intellectual Ability (BIA) score.

Reliability:  The median reliability coefficient alphas for all age groups for the standard battery of the WJ III COG for tests 1 through 10 ranged from .81 to .94.  For the Extended battery, median coefficients ranged from .74 to .97. The reliability scores for the WJ III meet or exceed standards.  The median cluster reliabilities are mostly .90 or higher, and the individual test reliabilities are mostly .80 or higher, and can be used for decision making purposes with support from other sources.

Validity:  The technical manual presents a considerable amount of evidence supporting the validity of scores from the test, noting that the earlier versions of the battery have also been shown to have validity. Test content on the WJ III COG has emerged from previous versions, is similar to the content found on other well-established cognitive measures, or is based on sound experimental instruments.

Suggested use:  The WJ III Tests of Cognitive Ability has uses for educational, clinical or research purposes. As a diagnostic tool, it can determine specific strengths and weaknesses, and can help associate certain factors on future development. Intra-ability, intra-individual and ability/achievement discrepancies can be useful in determining the existence of specific disabilities, and in selection for LD programs. The test results may be helpful in educational programming, individual program planning, guidance, in assessing growth, in research and evaluation and it is an excellent instrument for introducing individual assessment in college and university courses psychometric training.

5.     Differential Ability Scales (DAS):

Purpose: Designed to assess the cognitive ability and achievement of children.

Population: Children, aged 2 years 6 months through 17 years 11 months.

Administration: Paper-and-pencil

Scores: Standard Scores and Percentiles by age

Time: (25-65) minutes for Preschool level, (40 –65) minutes for School-Age Level on the Cognitive Battery, (15-25) minutes for the School Achievement tests.

Author: Colin D. Elliott

How it works: Twenty subtests look at problem-solving skills in a number of areas. There are lots of visual cues, such as pictures. And children can often respond to prompts by pointing to an “answer.”

Scoring: Scores are obtained on three levels, the General Conceptual Ability (GCA) made up the cluster scores, with a foundation provided by the individual subtests.  The GCA score is based on a definition of psychometric g as the general ability of an individual to perform complex mental processing that involves conceptualization and the transformation of information (conceptual and reasoning ability), the cluster scores represent verbal, spatial, and nonverbal reasoning abilities, and the subtest represent specific ability or processes.  Special ability scores for Verbal Ability, Nonverbal Reasoning Ability, and Spatial Ability are reported as percentiles and standard scores.  Such measures as perceptual and memory skills on the diagnostic subtest are reported by age as both percentile and T scores.

Reliability: The reliability coefficient (IRT in most cases,) was high for The GCA in all ages, with an average of .90 at the lowest preschool lever, and .94 for the upper preschool level and .95 for the School age level. 

Suggested use:  According to the author, the GCA of the DAS is an excellent predictor of academic achievement.  This instrument is able to address a wide variety of referral questions for a broad age range of children in school and clinical settings, as well as in research.

6.     Universal Nonverbal Intelligence:

Age range: 5.0–17.11 years

How it works: This test is given and answered using a series of eight hand and body gestures, such as pointing. It’s often used with kids who are nonverbal or who have hearing issues.

7.     Infant IQ Tests:

Infant IQ tests are much less verbal than IQ tests for older children.

o   Developmental Quotient (DQ):

Overall developmental scores that combine sub scores on motor, language, adaptive, and personal-social domains in the Gesell assessment of infants.

o   Bayley Scales of Infant Development:

Scales that assesses infant development, its current version has three parts: a mental scale, a motor scale, and the infant behavior profile.

o   Fagan Test of Infant Intelligence:

A test that focuses on the infant’s ability to process information in such ways as encoding the attributes of objects, detecting similarities and differences between objects, forming mental representations, and retrieving these mental representations.

§  Applications of intelligence tests:

Ø Use in selection:

Results of intelligence tests can be used for selection of suitable candidates for training in educational and professional skills such as admission to special courses, selection of the trainees, etc.

Ø Use in classification:

Intelligence tests help in classifying individuals according to their mental makeup, e.g. in schools, teachers responsibility is to classify the students in his class as backward, average, bright or gifted, and thus arrange for homogenous grouping to provide proper educational opportunities.

Ø Use in assessment for promotion:

The results of intelligence tests along with the achievement tests can be successfully used for promotion of students to the next higher grades of classes.

Ø Use in provision of guidance:

The results of intelligence tests may be successfully used in providing training to teachers and for personnel guidance.

Ø Use for improving the learning process:

Results of the intelligence testing may prove helpful to teachers to plan the teaching-learning skills.

Ø Use for diagnosis:

The other use relates with its capacity to diagnose, distinguish and discriminate the differences in the mental functioning of individuals.

Ø Use in research work:

The intelligence tests can be used in carrying out research in the field of education, psychology and sociology with different age groups for generalization.

Ø Useful in class-room teaching:

Intelligence tests are useful in class-room teaching. The results of intelligence tests are of great help to a teacher in assigning work to individual students.

They are especially useful in the early part of a teacher’s contact with a particular class as an aid in making teaching effective by knowing the students’ mental level and in conducting discussion.

Ø Use in clinics:

Intelligence tests are used in clinics and in mental hospitals in order to know as to how far the disease has impaired the intellect.

Ø For knowing individual differences:

Through intelligence tests, we can know about individuals in a class.

Ø Scholarship:

They are used for giving scholarships to the students.

Ø Useful for employers:

Intelligence tests results are useful for employers and for Parent-Teacher Conference.

Ø Useful to individuals:

Results of intelligence test are useful for the individual also. He can know about his performance in a particular field.

Ø For knowledge about self:

Intelligence tests can tell you about your own intelligence and you can improve upon it.

PERSONALITY ASSESSMENT

§  Definition of personality:

Personality is an individual’s unique constellation of psychological traits that is relatively stable over time.

It may also define as:

Any characteristic pattern of behavior, thought, or emotional experience that exhibits relative consistency across time and situations

    Definition of personality assessment:

Personality assessment may be defined as he measurement and evaluation of psychological traits, states, values, interest, attitudes, worldview, acculturation, sense of humor, cognitive and behavioral styles, and/or related individual characteristics.

§  Nature of personality assessment:

o   Personality assessment isn’t restricted to psychologists.

o   Assessments by non psychologists is more widespread and they may be even more important   

o   Those done by your family, friends, you, etc. 

o   We make choices about who to spend time with and who to avoid based upon these assessments.

o   Most important is the degree to which it’s right or wrong. 

o   Regardless of the source of the personality assessment, it must be evaluated according to the same criteria

ü  Validity— eval of professional personality judgments or personality tests

ü  Accuracy— eval of amateur judgments 

o   Two basic criteria 

ü  Agreement  

            Does this judgment agree with other judgments obtained through other techniques or from other judges (professional or amateur)? 

ü  Prediction 

            Can this judgment of personality be used to predict behavior?

§  Theories of personality:

1.    Psychoanalytic Theories

According to the psychoanalysts, much of the behavior is caused by parts of personality which are found in unconscious and of which we are unaware.

    Freud’s three levels of consciousness:

        I.            Conscious (small):

This is the part of the mind that holds what you are aware of. You can verbalize about your conscious experience and you can think about it in a logical fashion.

     II.            Preconscious (small-medium):

This is ordinary memory. So although things stored here aren’t in the conscious, they can be readily brought into conscious.

  III.            Unconscious (enormous):

Freud felt that this part of the mind was not directly accessible to awareness. In part, he saw it as a dump box for urges, feelings and ideas that are tied to anxiety, conflict and pain. These feelings and thoughts have not disappeared and according to Freud, they are there, exerting influence on our actions and our conscious awareness.  This is where most of work of the Id, Ego, and Superego take place.

    Freud’s topographical model of personality:

       I.            Id:

It is primary component of personality and works on pleasure principle. Id strives for immediate satisfaction of all desires, needs and wants. For example, if an infant feel hunfry, he will cry till his want is satisfied.

    II.            Ego:

Ego is responsible for dealing with reality. It works upon the reality principle which weights the cost of doing or abandoning something. It discharges tension created by id, by finding the object in the real world.

 III.            Super ego:

It holds of our internalized moral standards that we acquire from parents and society. It has two parts:

o   Ego ideal: Good behaviors are involved in it.

o   Ego conscience: Bad behaviors are included in it.

    Defense mechanisms:

Defense mechanism is a tactic developed by ego to protect against anxiety. Defense mechanisms are thought to safe guard the mind against feelings and thoughts that are too difficult for the conscious mind to cope with.

Some of Freudian’s defense mechanisms are given bellow:

    Freud’s psychosexual stages of development:

2.    Trait Theories

v Carl Jung’s theory of two types:

Carl Jung was a Swiss psychiatrist who was Freudian disciple, believed that there were one of two personality types.

o   Introversion:

Attitude of the psyche characterize by an orientation toward one’s own thoughts and feelings.

o   Extraversion:

Attitude of the psyche characterize by an orientation toward the external world and other people.

v Eysenck’s three factor theory:

Hens Eysensk was English psychologist who believed that there are three fundamental factors in personality:

o   Introversion versus Extroversion

o   Emotionally stable versus Unstable (Neurotic)

o   Impulse control versus Psychotic

o   Extroversion:

It is an orientation of one's interests and energies toward the outer world of people and things rather than the inner world of subjective experience. Extroverts are relatively more outgoing, gregarious, sociable, and openly expressive.

o   Introversion:

They have orientation toward the internal private world of one's self and one's inner thoughts and feelings, rather than toward the outer world of people and things. Introverts are relatively more withdrawn, retiring, reserved, quiet, and deliberate; they may tend to mute or guard expression of positive effect, adopt more skeptical views or positions, and prefer to work independently.

o   Neuroticism (unstable):

Such persons are characterized by a chronic level of emotional instability and proneness to psychological distress.

o   Emotionally stable:

Such individual are characterized by predictability and consistency in emotional reactions, with absence of rapid mood changes.

o   Psychoticism:

It is a dimension of personality characterized by aggression, impulsivity, aloofness, and anti-social behavior, indicating a susceptibility to psychosis and psychopathic disorders.

o   Self control:

It is the ability to be in command of one's behavior (overt, covert, emotional, or physical) and to restrain or inhibit one's impulses.

v Cattell: Source and Surface traits:

o   Source traits: Underlying characteristics of a personality are called source traits. They are building blocks of personality and are largely stable because they develop step by step. For example: aggression.

o   Surface traits: Features that make up the visible areas of personality are called surface traits. These traits are caused by the interaction of source traits and are somewhat unstable and observable. For example cool versus warm, dominant versus passive.

v Lewis Goldberg: The Big Five:

Goldberg believed that five factors (commonly known as OCEAN) were most important:

o   Openness to experience: Such people have appreciation for art, emotion, adventure, and unusual ideas; imaginative and curious.

o   Conscientiousness: Such individuals have tendency to show self-discipline, act dutifully, and aim for achievement.

o   Extroversion: They have energy, urgency, and the tendency to seek stimulation and the company of others.

o   Agreeableness: People possessing this trait have tendency to be compassionate and cooperative rather than suspicious and antagonistic towards others.

o   Neuroticism: Such individuals have tendency to easily experience unpleasant emotions such as anxiety, anger, or depression.

3.    Humanistic Theories

Humanistic approach focuses on human experience, problems, potentials and ideas.

v Maslow’s theory:

Abraham Maslow is considered as father of the humanistic movement. He observed the lives of healthy and creative people to develop his theory.

o   Hierarchy of needs:

It is the motivational component of Maslow’s theory, in which our innate needs, which motivate our actions, are hierarchically arranged.

o   Self actualization:

“Self actualization is the psychological process aimed at maximizing the use of a person’s abilities and resources. This process may vary from one person to another”

                                                                                                                     (Couture et al., 2007)

o   Characteristics of self actualized person:

Ø  Self-actualized people embrace the unknown and the ambiguous.

Ø  They accept themselves, together with all their flaws.

Ø  They prioritize and enjoy the journey, not just the destination.

Ø  While they are inherently unconventional, they do not seek to shock or disturb.

Ø  They are motivated by growth, not by the satisfaction of needs.

Ø  Self-actualized people have purpose.

Ø  They are not troubled by the small things.

Ø  Self-actualized people are grateful.

Ø  They share deep relationships with a few, but also feel identification and affection towards the entire human race.

Ø  Self-actualized people are humble.

Ø  Self-actualized people resist enculturation.

Ø  Despite all this, self-actualized people are not perfect.

v Carl Roger’s self theory:

Carl Roger was an American psychologist who believed that personality formed as a result of our strivings to reach our full human potential. He gave following concepts:

o   Fully functioning person: Such person lives with harmony his/her deepest feelings and impulses.

o   Real self/Self image: Total subjective perception of your body and personality is called self image.

o   Ideal self: This is the person who we would like to be. It consists of our goals and ambitions in life, and is dynamic.

o   Self-worth (or self-esteem): What we think about ourselves. Rogers believed feelings of self-worth developed in early childhood and were formed from the interaction of the child with the mother and father.

o   Unconditional positive regard:  Unconditional positive regard refers to accepting and respecting others as they are without judgment or evaluation. 

o   Positive self regard: Thinking of oneself as a good, loveable and worthwhile person is called positive self regard.  

4.    Behavioral Theories

Behavioral theories suggest that personality is a result of interaction between the individual and environment. These theories study observable and measureable behaviors, rejecting theories that take internal thoughts and feelings into account.

v B.F Skinner’s theory of operant conditioning:

B.F Skinner’s theory is based on operant conditioning which means when the organism I operating on the environments, the organism will encounter a special kind of reinforcing stimulus or simply a reinforcement.

o   Reinforcement:

Reinforcement is used to help increase the probability that a specific behavior will occur in the future by delivering or removing a stimulus immediately after a behavior.

ü  Positive Reinforcement:

Positive reinforcement works by presenting a motivating/reinforcing stimulus to the person after the desired behavior is exhibited, making the behavior more likely to happen in the future.

ü  Negative reinforcement:

Negative reinforcement occurs when a certain stimulus (usually an aversive stimulus) is removed after a particular behavior is exhibited. The likelihood of the particular behavior occurring again in the future is increased because of removing/avoiding the negative consequence.

o   Punishment:

Punishment is a process by which a consequence immediately follows a behavior which decreases the future frequency of that behavior. Like reinforcement, a stimulus can be added (positive punishment) or removed (negative punishment).

ü  Positive punishment:

Positive punishment works by presenting an aversive consequence after an undesired behavior is exhibited, making the behavior less likely to happen in the future. 

ü  Negative punishment:

Negative punishment happens when a certain reinforcing stimulus is removed after a particular undesired behavior is exhibited, resulting in the behavior happening less often in the future.

5.    Social Cognitive Theories

v Bandura’s social learning theory:

Bandura emphasized the importance of cognition in personality development. According to him, personality develops as a sense of self efficacy which is known as our beliefs about our ability to achieve goals. Individuals with higher self efficacy accept greater challenges and try harder to meet challenges. Bandura also discussed the notion of reciprocal determinism.

o   Reciprocal determinism: The individual and environment continually influence each other.

v Rotter’s theory of locus of control:

Julian Rotter was an American psychologist. His personality theory combines learning principles, modeling, cognition and the effects of social relationships.

o   External locus of control: Perception that chance or external forces beyond personal control determine one’s fate.

o   Internal locus of control: It involves perception that you control your own fate.

o   Learned helplessness: A sense of helplessness in which a person thinks that he/she is unable to prevent aversive events.

§  Tests used to measure personality

There are basically three types of personality tests which are as follow:

        I.            Objective tests

     II.            Subjective tests

  III.            Projective tests

a.     Objective Tests

An objective test is a psychological test that measures an individual’s characteristics in a way that isn’t influenced by the examiner’s own beliefs; in this way, they are said to be independent of rater bias. They usually involve the administration of a bank of questions that are marked and compared against standardized scoring mechanisms, in much the same way that school exams are administered. Objective tests tend to have more validity than projective tests (described below); however, they are still subject to the willingness and ability of the examinee to be open, honest, and self-reflective enough to accurately represent and report their true personality.

The most common form of objective test in personality psychology is the self-report measure. Self-report measures rely on information provided directly by participants about themselves or their beliefs through a question-and-answer format. There are a number of test formats, but each one requires respondents to provide information about their own personality. They typically use multiple-choice items or numbered scales, which represent a range from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree).

       I.             Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory:

Purpose: Designed as an objective personality test for the assessment of psychopathology.

Population: Adults.

Score: Reports scores for the various scales.

Time: (40-90) minutes.

Authors: Starke Hathaway and J. Charnley McKinley.

Description: The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) is an objective verbal inventory designed as a personality test for the assessment of psychopathology consisting of 550 statements, 16 of which are repeated. The replicated statements were originally included to facilitate the first attempt at scanner scoring. Though they are no longer needed for this purpose, they persist in the inventory.

Scoring: The inventory is scored in subunits, eight of which are conventionally termed clinical scales and provide the clinical profile. The clinical scales are:

ü  Scale 1 (Hypochondriasis);

ü  Scale 2 (Depression);

ü  Scale 3 (Hysteria);

ü  Scale 4 (Psychopathic Deviate);

ü  Scale 5 (Paranoia);

ü  Scale 6 (Psychasthenia);

ü  Scale 7 (Schizophrenia); and

ü  Scale 8 (Hypomania).

Reliability: Test-retest reliabilities reported in the manual range from the .50s to the low .90s. 

Validity: The validity of the MMPI varies with the population examined and the questions to be answered. The inventory has been the subject of thousands of studies and seemingly works best with diagnosing those who are severely disturbed and are demographically most like the original Minnesota normative sample (i.e., white and middle-class). The inventory seemingly is less valid with groups divergent from this population, such as those from different races or cultures.

Suggested Uses: Applications of scale involve: screening, assessment, selection, and prediction applications in both research and clinical settings.
  

   II.            Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory – Adolescent:

Purpose: Designed for use with adolescents to assess a number of the major patterns of personality and emotional disorders.

Population: Ages 14-18.

Scores: Sixty-eight scale scores.

Time: Administration time not reported.

Authors: James N. Butcher, Carolyn L. Williams, John R. Graham, Beverly Kaemmer, Robert P. Archer (manual); Auke Tellegen (manual), Yossef S. Ben-Porath (manual), S.R. Hathaway (test booklet), and J.C. McKinley.

Description: The MMPI-A is largely a parallel inventory to the MMPI-2, designed to assess psychopathology in adolescents.

Scores: The MMPI-A contains 68 scales: 16 Basic Scales (6 Validity scales and 10 Clinical Scales), 28 Harris-Lingoes Subscales, 3 Si Subscales, 15 Adolescent Content Scales, and 6 Supplementary Scales.

Reliability: The manual contains 40 alpha coefficients for assessing internal consistencies of the 40, 17 (43%) range from .75 to .91, 18 (45%) range from .55 to .68; and the remaining 5 (13%) range from .35 to .53. Inter correlations among the clinical scales range from .00 to .85 in the normative sample.

Validity: To the extent that the MMPI-A retains the essence of the MMPI, the basic clinical scales come complete with documented empirical validity. The validity of the 15 new content scales is purported to obtain external validity coefficients equal to that of its parent measure.

Usages: This inventory is mostly use for assessment of adolescent’s psychopathology.
  

III.            Personality Assessment Inventory
 

Purpose:  Designed to provide information relevant to clinical diagnosis, treatment planning, and screening for psychopathology.

Population:  Ages 18 years to adult.

o   Scales:  

ü  Inconsistency

ü  Infrequency

ü  Negative Impression

ü  Positive Impression

ü  Somatic Complaints

ü  Anxiety

ü  Anxiety- Related Disorders

ü  Depression

ü  Mania

ü  Paranoia

ü  Schizophrenia

ü  Borderline Features

ü  Antisocial Features

ü  Alcohol Problems

ü  Drug Problems

ü  Aggression

ü  Suicidal Ideation

ü  Stress

ü  Nonsupport

ü  Treatment Rejection

ü  Dominance

ü  Warmth

Total Time:  (40-50) minutes.

Author:  Leslie C. Morey

Description:  The Personality Assessment Inventory (PAI), is a self-report inventory of adult psychopathology. It was designed as a multidimensional alternative to the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) for assessing abnormal personality traits. The PAI is a self-report questionnaire consisting of 344 items (scored on a 4-point ordinal scale: F = False; ST = Slightly True; MT = Mainly True; VT = Very True). The PAI includes current items, and avoids colloquial and slang expressions. Items considered potentially biased (on gender, ethnic, economic, religious or other grounds) were excluded.  The PAI manual is both comprehensive and informative.

Scoring:  The PAI has 22 non-overlapping scales which include 4 validity scales, 11 clinical scales, 5 treatment scales, and 2 interpersonal scales (10 scales are further subdivided into 31 conceptually distinct subscales). Most scales consist of 8, 12, or 24 items with an average grade 4 reading level.

Reliability:  Alpha coefficients of internal consistency for the 22 scales were median .81, median .82, and median .86 for the normative, college, and clinical samples.

Suggested use:  The PAI is intended to provide information relevant to clinical diagnoses, treatment planning and screening for psychopathology.

IV.            Myers-Briggs Type Indicator:

Purpose: Designed to classify individuals according to Jungian theory.

Population: High school and college students.

Score: Two types of scores on the four given dimensions.

Time: Not reported.

Authors: Isabel Briggs Myers and Katharine C. Briggs.

Description: The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) is a forced-choice, self-report inventory that attempts to classify individuals according to an adaptation of Carl Jung’s theory of conscious psychological type. There is the assumption that human behavior, perceived as random and diverse, is actually quite orderly and consistent. This view supposes that the observed variability is due to "certain basic differences in the way people prefer to use perception and judgment." The MBTI should be regarded "as affording hypotheses for further testing and verification rather than infallible expectations of all behaviors."

Scoring: The MBTI classifies individuals along four theoretically independent dimensions.

o   The first dimension is a general attitude toward the world, either extraverted (E) or introverted (I).

o   The second dimension, perception, describes a function and is divided between sensation (S) and intuition (N).

o   The third dimension, also a function, is that of processing. Once information is received, it is processed in either a thinking (T) or feeling (F) style.

o   The final dimension is judging (J) versus perceiving (P).

Uses: Recommended for use in research or clinical settings. 

   V.            Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire

Purpose:  Designed as an objective personality test.

Population:  Ages 16 and above.

Score:  Sten scores.

Time:  30-60 minutes.

Author:  Raymond B. Cattell

Description:  The Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire (16PF) is an objective test of 16 multidimensional personality attributes arranged in omnibus form. In general, it provides normed references to each of these attribute (the primary scales). Conceptualized and initially developed by Raymond B. Cattell in 1949 as a broad, multipurpose measure of the "source traits" of individual personality, the 16PF is appropriate for a wide range of multifaceted populations. It provides a global representation of an individual’s coping style, the person’s reactive stance to an ever-fluid and transactional environment and that individual’s ability to perceive accurately certain specific environmental requisites for personal behavior.

Scoring:  A subject’s raw score for each of the 16 primary factors is obtained through a weighted procedure where particular responses count as "1" or "2" summative toward the final raw score. These weighted or non weighted sums are then compared to the desired normative score tables in the tabular supplement where a particular sten score is identified based on the magnitudinal range of the response and the individual normative demographics of the respondent. This sten score is entered on the profile form and subsequently depicted graphically for ease of interpretation.

Reliability:  Reliability coefficients calculated by test-retest with short intervals (single or multiple days) demonstrate relatively acceptable coefficients, with only sporadic instances of a scale falling below a .70 magnitude. 

Uses:  The 16PF is recommended for use in personality assessment as part of a battery in clinical and research settings.

VI.            Eysenck Personality Questionnaire:

The Eysench Personality Questionnaire is based on Eysenck’s model of personality, and was developed from a large body of research and laboratory experiments. Eysenck’s inventory focuses on three dimensions: psychoticism, extraversion, and neuroticism.

VII.            NEO Personality Inventory – Revised:

Purpose: Designed to measure five major dimensions or domains of normal adult personality.

Population: Ages 17 and older.

Scores: 30 facet scores and 5 domain scores.

Time: (30-40) minutes.

Authors: Paul T. Costa, Jr. and Robert R. McCrae.

Description: The NEO-PI-R is the most recent version of Costa and McCrae’s instrument to assess normal adult personality using the five-factor model taxonomy of personality. It is one of the few commercially available test based on this model.

Scoring: The NEO-P-R assesses five major domains of personality:

ü  Neuroticism (N)

ü  Extroversion (E)

ü  Openness to Experience (O)

ü  Agreeableness (A), and

ü  Conscientiousness (C)

 Each represented by six lower level facet scale scores. It is available in three formats: self-report and observer-report versions and the NEO-FFI, a 60-item short form of the instrument.

Reliability: Domain level reliabilities range from .86 to .95 for both the self and observer rating forms of this instrument.

Validity: There is strong consensual validity between self, peer, and spouse reports of the test. Construct, convergent, and divergent validity evidence for the scales has been collected by Costa and McCrae. NEO-PI-R scales correlated with analogous scales from other instruments.

Uses: It is recommended that these scales are useful tools for personality assessment and may provide a useful bridge between basic research in personality psychology and applied psychology.
 
  

b.     Subjective Tests

The Subjective Methods are those in which the individual is permitted to disclose what he knows about himself as an object of observation. They are based on what the subject himself has to say about his traits, attitudes, personal experiences, aims, needs and interests.

      I.            Auto biographies:

The autobiography is a narration by the individual, given either freely or according to certain subject headings provided by the examiner, of his experiences throughout life, of his present aims, purposes, interests and attitudes.

The subject has freedom in selecting experiences which are of significance to him and these reveal his personality. The disadvantage is that what the subjects out of his life is that part of his experience which he is willing to reveal.

   II.            Case history:

The case history is dependent to a great or less extent upon the autobiography. In a case history, we integrate the information that we obtain from various sources about the individual. This requires many interviews with individual and other persons who know the individual.

The case-study technique gives information about the individual’s parents and grand-parents, his home background, his medical history, his educational career, his friendships, his marital life, his profession and others. This method is more useful in understanding the personality-patterns of an individual who is a problem or is maladjusted. 

 III.            The Interview:

The interview is the most common method of judging personality. The interviewer questions or lets the individual speak freely so as to get a clear picture of the individual. From what he says, the interviewer knows about his interests, problems, assets and limitations. The chief dimension in respect to which the interview may vary is the rigidity or flexibility with which the interviewer holds to a pre-decided outline or schedule of questions or topics.

At times, it is useful to have a definite list of points to be covered consecutively. Greater skill is needed in free interviews which are not restricted by a list of definite points or questions.

The interviewer evaluates personality traits not only from the content of answers to questions asked, but also from the dogmatism with which the news are expressed, by the interest shown, by vocabulary or incidental references which the subject employs unwittingly in his conversation, and by observing his hesitations, his fidgeting, his emotionality and the like.

The limitation of the method is that it is subjective and is less valid than one believes it to be.

o   Types of interview:

ü  Structured interview

ü  Semi structured interview

ü  Unstructured interview

IV.            Questionnaires:

Questionnaires are a series of printed or written questions which the individual is supposed to answer. Ordinarily, the subject is expected to answer each question by checking or encircling or underlining ‘yes’ or ‘no’ provided against the question. The investigator counts the number of yes’s, No’s and?’s and thus is in a position to state whether a certain individual possesses certain traits or not.

The questions or statements provided describe certain traits emotions, attitudes or behaviors in situations revealing personality. The yes’s or no’s are counted in certain groups or sections depending on the traits to be indicated by positive or negative answers.

The limitation of this device is that the subject may not be willing to reveal correct facts about him or may not be in conscious possession of these facts. The method, at its best, reveals that part of personality which is explicit or available to the subject’s scrutiny.

Some of the well- known personality questionnaires is the Bernrenter Personality Questionnaire, The Bell Adjustment Inventory, The Washbume Social-Adjustment inventory. The Indian Statistical Institute has also released a short personality inventory.

c.      Projective Tests

Projective measures, unlike objective tests, are sensitive to the rater’s or examiner’s beliefs. Projective tests are based on Freudian psychology (psychoanalysis) and seek to expose people’s unconscious perceptions by using ambiguous stimuli to reveal the inner aspects of an individual’s personality. Two of the most popular projective measures are the Thematic Apperception Measure and the Rorschach test.

The advantage of projective measures is that they purportedly expose certain aspects of personality that are impossible to measure by means of an objective test; for instance, they are more reliable at uncovering unconscious personality traits or features. However, they are criticized for having poor reliability and validity, lacking scientific evidence, and relying too much on the subjective judgment of a clinician.

     I.            Rorschach inkblot test:

Purpose: Designed as a projective technique to assess personality characteristics.

Population: Children and adults.

Score: 4-square (Exner).

Time: N/A.

Author: Hermann Rorschach.

Description: Hermann Rorschach, employing inkblots (i.e., using forms obtained through chance by folding over a piece of paper into the center of which ink had been dropped) to explore an aspect of personality, created the Rorschach. He standardized the inkblot procedure and synthesized the procedure with Jung's work on the Word Association Test and Bleuler's notions regarding personality assessment. When responses to inkblots had been used to assess imagination, emphasis was placed on the content of the responses. By contrast, Rorschach stressed not the content, but rather the formal properties of the response, and, as such, this enabled him to conceptualize the test as one of perception and not of imagination. By noting the intimate relationship between perceptual reactions and other psychological functions, Rorschach was able to conceptually place his technique in the middle of the assessment of total personality functioning.

Scoring: The foundation for Rorschach interpretation based upon the Comprehensive System is what Exner terms the "4-square," which incorporates the basic scores and ratios thought to be characteristic of one's problem-solving style. The four indices of the 4-square are

1) Erlebnistypus (EB, the ratio of human movement to weighted color responses);

2) Experience Actual (EA, the sum of human movement and weighted color responses);

3) Experience Base (eb, the ratio of nonhuman movement to shading and gray-black responses); and

4) Experience Potential (ep the sum of non-human movement, shading, and gray-black responses).

Reliability and Validity: Refer to Exner’s Comprehensive System publications for detailed information on the reliability and validity of this scoring system. There is also abundant literature on several other alternate scoring systems for the Rorschach.

Uses: The Rorschach is recommended for projective personality assessment in clinical and research settings.
 

   II.            Thematic Apperception Test:

Purpose: Designed as a projective measure.
Population: Ages 4 and over.
Time: (100-200) minutes in 2 sessions one day apart.
Author: Henry A. Murray.

Description: The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) is, along with the Rorschach, among the most widely used, researched, and taught projective tests in existence. It consists of a series of pictures of relatively ambiguous scenes to which subjects are requested to make up stories or fantasies concerning what is, has, and is going to happen, along with a description of the thoughts and feelings of the various characters depicted. The test protocol thus provides the examiner with a rich source of data, based on the subject's perceptions and imagination, for use in the understanding of the subject's current needs, motives, emotions, and conflicts, both conscious and unconscious. Its use in clinical assessment is generally part of a larger battery of tests and interview data.

Scoring: The data from the TAT can be scored according to a variety of existing quantitative systems. However, more commonly in clinical use the stories are interpreted in accord with general principles of inference derived from psychodynamic theory.

Reliability and Validity: The manual provides no information on reliability or validity, although the various scoring systems have independent psychometric data.

Uses: The TAT is recommended as a projective method of personality assessment. 

 III.            Children’s Apperception Test:

Purpose: Designed as a projective method of describing personality.

Population: Ages 3 to 10 years.

Time: (30) minutes.

Authors: Leopold Bellak and Sonya Sorel Bellak.

Description: The Children’s Apperception Test (CAT-A) is a projective method of describing personality by studying individual differences in the responses made to stimuli presented in the form of pictures of animals in selected settings. The 10 items consist of 10 scenes showing a variety of animal figures, mostly in unmistakably human social settings. The use of animal rather than human figures was based on the assumption that children of these ages would identify more readily with appealing drawings of animals than with drawings of humans. The author discusses interpretation on the basis of psychoanalytic themes, but there is no compelling reason that Children’s Apperception Test protocols could not be interpreted from other theoretical frameworks.

Scoring: This projective technique is not "scored" in a quantitative sense. The gist of stores is recorded, and the presence or absence of thematic elements is indicated on the form provided.

Reliability and Validity: No statistical information is provided on the technical validity and reliability of the CAT.

Uses: Designed for use in clinical and research settings.

IV.            Word Association Test:

Purpose: Designed to reveal associative connections between stimuli words and responses.

Population: Adults.

Time: N/A.

Authors: D. Rapaport, M. Gill, and R. Schafer.

Description: The word association method is a psychological test intended to reveal associative connections between stimulus words and free verbal responses. Subjects are instructed to give discrete verbal responses to common stimulus words (usually nouns or verbs). Because verbalizations reflect ideation, it is assumed that the systematic study of associative thought can reveal information about an individual’s personality characteristics, areas of emotional disturbances, and the like. Although the method has no necessary tie to any particular theory, it is usually employed as a projective technique.

Scoring: There are no formal scoring procedures employed with this method.

Reliability and Validity: The manual provides no reliability and Validity information. Very few validity and reliability studies have been undertaken because internal clinical judgment constitutes such an integral part of the approach.

Uses: The Word Association Test is recommended as part of a comprehensive test battery in clinical and research settings. 

   V.            Rotter Incomplete Sentences Blank, Second Edition:

Purpose: Designed "as a screening instrument of overall adjustment."

Population: College students, adults, high-school students.

Score: Index of Overall Adjustment.

Time: (20-40) minutes.

Authors: Julian Rotter, Michael Lah, and Janet Rafferty.

Description: The Second Edition of the Rotter Incomplete Sentences Blank (RISB) is a projective measure of maladjustment with a semi-objective scoring system. This revised instrument provides direct information on personality conflicts. As scoring depends on intuitive clinical insights, cognizance of personality dynamics is essential for accurate interpretation. Although responses can also be scored qualitatively for projected motivational needs, as a general rule, interpretation of subjective scales is notoriously unreliable.

Scoring: Responses are rated on a 7-point ordinal scale (higher scores suggesting greater maladjustment) on the basis of omissions and incomplete responses, conflict responses, positive responses, or neutral responses. Overall scores generally range from 80 to 205 (on a scale from zero through 240). However, because of the diversity among individuals’ idiosyncratic responses, the RISB cannot readily be computer scored. This inevitably raises questions as to the objectivity and scoring consistency of RISB responses.

Reliability: Several studies reported in the RISB manual suggest uncertain reliability. Stability coefficients are reported as ranging from a low .38 (retest interval of 3 years) up to .82 (retest after only 1-2 weeks), so it cannot be assumed that the instrument is always reliable. The manual reports split-half estimates ranging form .74 to .86, and a Cronbach alpha coefficient of .69.

Uses: Recommended uses of the RISB include screening, tracking changes in scores over time, group comparisons, and research. 

  

APTITEDE ASSESSMENR

§  Definition of aptitude:

Aptitude is inborn potential to do certain kinds of work whether developed or undeveloped. Ability is developed knowledge, understanding, learned or acquired abilities (skills) or attitude.

Types of aptitude tests

       I.            Differential Ability Scales

Purpose: Designed to assess the cognitive ability and achievement of children. Population: Children, aged 2 years 6 months through 17 years 11 months. Scores: General Conceptual Ability, cluster scores and core subtest scores. Time: (25-65) minutes for Preschool level, (40 –65) minutes for School-Age Level on the Cognitive Battery,  (15-25) minutes for the School Achievement tests. Author: Colin D. Elliott Description: The Differential Ability Scales is an individually administered test battery intending to measure cognitive and achievement levels for children for classification and diagnostic purposes.  Its diverse nature makes it possible to profile a child’s strengths and weaknesses. This instrument intends to provide a wider range of measurement possibilities than found in other similar batteries. The tasks and scores of the DAS are said to reflect a wide range of theories to accommodate a variety of theoretical views. It consists of 20 subtests, 17 cognitive and 3 achievement subtests yielding an overall cognitive ability score and achievement scores.  Differences between cognitive abilities and between cognitive ability and achievement can be explored.  Harder or easier sets of items can be administered if high or low ability is expected in out-of-level testing. Scoring: Scores are obtained on three levels, the General Conceptual Ability (GCA) made up the cluster scores, with a foundation provided by the individual subtests.  The GCA score is based on a definition of psychometric g as the general ability of an individual to perform complex mental processing that involves conceptualization and the transformation of information (conceptual and reasoning ability), the cluster scores represent verbal, spatial, and nonverbal reasoning abilities, and the subtest represent specific ability or processes.  Special ability scores for Verbal Ability, Nonverbal Reasoning Ability, and Spatial Ability are reported as percentiles and standard scores.  Such measures as perceptual and memory skills on the diagnostic subtest are reported by age as both percentile and T scores. Reliability: The reliability coefficient (IRT in most cases,) was high for The GCA in all ages, with an average of .90 at the lowest preschool lever, and .94 for the upper pre school level.  And .95 for the School Age level.  Suggested use:  According to the author, the GCA of the DAS is an excellent predictor of academic achievement.  This instrument is able to address a wide variety of referral questions for a broad age range of children in school and clinical settings, as well as in research.     II.            Differential aptitude test:

Published: The DAT was first published in 1947 and has multiple forms and levels.

Author(s):

Alexander G Wesman, George K Bennett and Harold G Seashore

Purpose: The Differential Aptitude Tests (DAT) is a multiple aptitude test battery designed to measure Grades 7-12 students' and some adults' ability to learn or to succeed in selected areas. 

Age Range: Adult

Administration: Individual or Group

Time: 10 to 30 minutes per subtest

o   Eight scales of DAT:
1) Verbal Reasoning (VR)
2) Numerical Ability(NA)
3) Abstract Reasoning (AR)
4) Perceptual (Clerical) Speed and Accuracy (PSA)
5) Mechanical Reasoning (MR)
6) Space Relations (SR)
7) Spelling (SP)
8) Language Usage (LU)

Ø  Nine scores are provided one for each scale and a composite score from VR and NR called the Scholastic Aptitude (SA) score.

Ø  All the tests except PSA are multiple-choice. In MR, problems are presented using drawings. Users may choose to score the tests by hand, by scanner, or to have them scored by The Psychological Corporation.

Ø  Maximum and minimum standard scores not established in research but reported in DAT manual.

Ø  The DAT is linked to the Career Interest Inventory to assist with vocational counseling and planning.

III.            Metropolitan Readiness Test: MRT6:

Author:

Joanne R Nurss and Mary E McGauvran

The sixth edition of the MRT is the latest version of a test originally published in 1933. The technical qualities of the test are marginal. The reliability of the total composite is usually sufficient for making important decisions for individual students; the other scores are usually not reliable enough for that purpose. The norming procedures are poorly described. Validity evidence is largely absent.

o   The subtests of MRT:

ü  Visual Discrimination (Level I): This is a Beginning Reading subtest that assesses skill in matching individual letters, letter sequences, and words.

ü  Beginning Consonants (Levels I and II): This is a Beginning Reading subtest that assesses skill in discriminating initial phonemes.

ü  Sound–Letter Correspondence (Levels I and II): This is a Beginning Reading subtest that assesses skill in identifying letters that correspond to sounds.

ü  Aural Cloze (Level II): This is a Beginning Reading subtest that assesses skill in matching the initial sound of a picture that is contextually appropriate for a sentence read by the examiner.

ü  Story Comprehension (Levels I and II): This subtest assesses understanding of the vocabulary and concepts of a story to which subjects listen.

ü  Quantitative Concepts and Reasoning (Levels I and II): This subtest assesses basic mathematical concepts (such as number–numeral and part–­whole relationships) and operations (for example, addition).

IV.            Miller Analogies Test (MAT):

This is 100 items, multiple choice analogy tests that draws not only on the examinee’s ability to perceive relationships but also on general intelligence, vocabulary and academic learning.

§  Need and importance of aptitude assessment:

Ø  To know whether an individual will become a good teacher, a good physician, a good social worker or a good artist etc.

Ø  To help individuals to choose professions according to their aptitude.

Ø  To select workers for particular jobs and vocations.

Ø  To help the counselor to render appropriate and exact counseling service according to aptitude.

Ø  To help the school authority to reduce the number of probable failures.

§  Uses of aptitude tests:   

Ø  These tests are useful to assist high school students in the proper choice of courses such as Science, Arts and Commerce.

Ø  They are extensively used in helping students to make choice relating to their future occupation such as; army, air force, military etc.

Ø  They are sometimes used for selection of students for admission in colleges and technical institutes.

Ø  They are very useful to make prediction about an individual’s probable success in courses and careers.

                                                   

NEUROLOGICAL ASSESSMENT

§  Definition of neurology:

The branch of medicine that focuses on the nervous system and its disorders is neurology.

    Definition of Neuropsychology:

The branch of psychology focuses on the relationship between brain functioning and behavior is called neuropsychology.

Formerly a specialty area within clinical psychology, neuropsychology has evolved into a specialty in its own right, with its own training regimens and certifying bodies. Neuropsychologists study the nervous system as it relates to behavior by using various tools, including neuropsychological assessment. 

    Definition of Neuropsychological assessment:

Neuropsychological assessment may be define as the evaluation of brain and nervous system functioning as it relates to behavior.

§  Nature of the neuropsychological assessment

A core part of neuropsychological assessment is the administration of neuropsychological tests for the formal assessment of cognitive function, though neuropsychological testing is more than the administration and scoring of tests and screening tools. It is essential that neuropsychological assessment also include an evaluation of the person's mental status. This is especially true in assessment of Alzheimer's disease and other forms of dementia. Aspects of cognitive functioning that are assessed typically include orientation, new-learning/memory, intelligence, language, visuoperception, and executive function. However, clinical neuropsychological assessment is more than this and also focuses on a person's psychological, personal, interpersonal and wider contextual circumstances.

Assessment may be carried out for a variety of reasons, such as:

·         Clinical evaluation: to understand the pattern of cognitive strengths as well as any difficulties a person may have, and to aid decision making for use in a medical or rehabilitation environment.

·         Scientific investigation: to examine a hypothesis about the structure and function of cognition to be tested, or to provide information that allows experimental testing to be seen in context of a wider cognitive profile.

·         Medico-legal assessment: to be used in a court of law as evidence in a legal claim or criminal investigation.

§  Relation of the nervous system and behavior

The nervous system is composed of various kinds of neurons (nerve cells) and can be divided into the central nervous system  (consisting of the brain and the spinal cord) and the  peripheral nervous system  (consisting of the neurons that convey messages to and from the rest of the body). Viewed from the top, the large, rounded portion of the brain (called the cerebrum) can be divided into two sections, or hemispheres.

§  Neurological Damage and the Concept of Organicity:

  Modern-day researchers exploring the link between the brain and the body use a number of varied tools and procedures in their work. Beyond the usual tools of psychological assessment (tests, case studies, etc.), investigators employ high-technology imaging equipment, experimentation involving the electrical or chemical stimulation of various human and animal brain sites, experimentation involving surgical alteration of the brains of animal subjects, laboratory testing and field observation of head-trauma victims, and autopsies of normal and abnormal human and animal subjects.

Through these varied means, researchers have learned much about healthy and pathological neurological functioning.   Neurological damage may take the form of a lesion in the brain or any other site within the central or peripheral nervous system. A lesion is a pathological alteration of tissue, such as that which could result from injury or infection. Neurological lesions may be physical or chemical in nature, and they are characterized as focal (relatively circumscribed at one site) or diffuse (scattered at various sites). Because different sites of the brain control various functions, focal and diffuse lesions at different sites will manifest themselves in varying behavioral deficits.

§  Diagnosis of neuropsychological disorder:

Certain types of damage to the brain will cause behavioral and cognitive difficulties. Psychologists can start screening for these problems by using either one of the following techniques or all of these combined:

o   History taking:

This includes gathering medical history of the patient and their family, presence or absence of developmental milestones, psychosocial history, and character, severity, and progress of any history of complaints. The psychologist can then gauge how to treat the patient and determine if there are any historical determinants for his or her behavior.

o   Interviewing:

Psychologists use structured interviews in order to determine what kind of neurological problem the patient might be experiencing. There are a number of specific interviews, including the Short Portable Mental Status Questionnaire, Neuropsychological Impairment Scale, Patient’s Assessment of Own Functioning, and Structured Interview for the Diagnosis of Dementia.

o   Test-taking:

The scores on standardized tests taken by children is a strong predictor of future or current neuropsychological problems. Standardized tests allow psychologists to compare a child’s results with other children’s because it has the same components and is given in the same way. It is representative of the child’s behavior and cognition. The results of a standardized test are only a tool used to discover if there is a disorder. Further testing is needed to officially diagnose the patient.

o   Intelligence testing:

Testing one’s intelligence can also give a clue to whether there is a problem in the brain-behavior connection. The Wechsler Scales are the tests most often used to determine level of intelligence. The variety of scales available, the nature of the tasks, as well as a wide gap in verbal and performance scores can give clues to whether there is a learning disability or damage to a certain area of the brain.

o   Testing other areas:

Other areas are also tested when a patient goes through neuropsychological assessment. These can include sensory perception, motor functions, attention, memory, auditory and visual processing, language, problem solving, planning, organization, speed of processing, and many others. Neuropsychological assessment can test many areas of cognitive and executive functioning to determine whether a patient’s difficulty in function and behavior has a neuropsychological basis.

Types of Neuropsychological Tests

  A wide variety of tests is used by neuropsychologists as well as others who are charged with finding answers to neuropsychology-related referral questions. Researchers may employ neuropsychological tests to gauge change in mental status or other variables as a result of the administration of medication or the onset of a disease or disorder. Forensic evaluators may employ tests to gain insight into the effect of neuropsychological factors on issues such as criminal responsibility or competency to stand trial.

      I.            Tests of General Intellectual Ability:

 Tests of intellectual ability, particularly Wechsler tests, occupy a prominent position among the diagnostic tools available to the neuropsychologist. The varied nature of the tasks on the Wechsler scales and the wide variety of responses required make these tests potentially very useful tools for neuropsychological screening.

 For example, a clue to the existence of a deficit might be brought to light by difficulties in concentration during one of the subtests. Because certain patterns of test response indicate particular deficits, the examiner looks beyond performance on individual tests to a study of the pattern of test scores, a process termed pattern analysis.  Thus, for example, extremely poor performance on the Block Design and other performance subtests might be telling in a record that contains relatively high scores on all the verbal subtests. In combination with a known pattern of other data, the poor Block Design performance could indicate damage in the right hemisphere.

 A number of researchers intent on developing a definite sign of brain damage have devised various ratios and quotients based on patterns of subtest scores. David Wechsler himself referred to one such pattern, called a deterioration quotient or DQ (also referred to by some as a deterioration index). However, neither Wechsler’s DQ nor any other WAIS-based index has performed satisfactorily enough to be deemed a valid, stand-alone measure of neuropsychological impairment.

   II.            Tests to Measure the Ability to Abstract:

  One symptom commonly associated with neuropsychological deficit, regardless of the site or exact cause of the problem, is inability or lessened ability to think abstractly. One traditional measure of verbal abstraction ability has been the Wechsler Similarities subtest, isolated from the age-appropriate version of the Wechsler intelligence scale.

The task in this subtest is to identify how two objects (for instance, a ball and an orange) are alike. Another type of task used to assess ability to think abstractly is proverb interpretation. For example, interpret the following proverb:   A stitch in time saves nine.

  If your interpretation of this proverb conveyed the idea that haste makes waste, then you have evinced an ability to think abstractly. By contrast, some people with neurological deficits might have interpreted that proverb more concretely (that is, with less abstraction). Here is an example of a concrete interpretation: When sewing, take one stitch at a time—it’ll save you from having to do it over nine times.

This type of response might (or might not, depending on other factors) betray a deficit in abstraction ability. The Proverbs Test, an instrument specifically designed to test abstraction and related ability, contains a number of proverbs along with standardized administration instructions and normative data. In one form of this test, the subject is instructed to write an explanation of the proverb.

III.            Tests of Verbal Functioning:

Verbal fluency and fluency in writing are sometimes affected by injury to the brain, and there are tests to assess the extent of the deficit in such skills. In the Controlled Word Association Test (formerly the Verbal Associative Fluency Test), the examiner says a letter of the alphabet and then it is the subject’s task to say as many words as he or she can think of that begin with that letter. Each of three trials employs three different letters as a stimulus and lasts one minute; the testtaker’s final score on the test reflects the total number of correct words produced, weighted by factors such as the gender, age, and education of the test taker.

§  Uses of neuropsychological assessment

Ø  A situation where an illness or injury has the potential to adversely impact on cognitive functioning is one where neuropsychological assessment is indicated.

Ø  These include assessment for the purpose of diagnosis, differential diagnosis, prediction of functional potential, measuring treatment response, and clinical correlation with imaging findings.

Ø  Some of these uses are related to each other and some are impossible in certain circumstances, because neuropsychological assessments do not provide information helpful for these tasks.

ACHIEVEMENT ASSESSMENT

Definition:

The act of achieving something or the achievement of an ambition is known as achievement.

Although the terms assessment, evaluation and measurement are often used interchangeably, it is important to note that these terms need to be interpreted separately and differently.

·         Measurement The regular dictionary definition of ‘assigning a numerical quantity to’ serves well in most applications of educational measurement.

·         Evaluation In general, the use of the term ‘evaluation’ is reserved for application to abstract entities such as programmers, curricula and organizational situations.

    Definition of achievement assessment:

“Any test that measures the attainments and accomplishments of an individual after a period of training or learning”.

o   NM Downie:

‘The type of ability test that describes what a person has learned to do’

o   Throndike and Hagen:

“A systematic procedure for determining the amount a student has learned through instructions”

§  Nature of the achievement assessment:

Evaluation In general, the use of the term ‘evaluation’ is reserved for application to abstract entities such as programs, curricula and organizational situations. Its use implies a general weighing of the value or worth of something. Evaluation commonly involves making comparisons with a standard, or against criteria derived from stated objectives, or with other programs, curricula or organizational situations. Evaluation is primarily an activity involved in research and development. It may require the measurement of educational outcomes, and it may involve the testing of both individuals and groups.

Types of achievement assessment

       I.            School- Wechsler Individual Achievement Test (WIAT-III):

Age range: 4.0–50.11 years

How it works: This test is divided into eight subtests. Each assesses a specific ability. There’s a subtests that looks at spelling, for instance, and one that looks at listening comprehension. The subtests may be given over a number of sessions.

    II.            Peabody Individual Achievement Test:

Age range: 5–22.11 years

How it works: Kids are asked questions on a range of subjects, like reading, math and spelling. They can then look at multiple-choice answers and point to what they believe is the correct response. Because this is a “show me” test, it’s often used with kids who have trouble communicating verbally.

If your child is being tested, it’s a good idea to learn as much as possible about the entire evaluation process. It can also help to know about the specific assessments used. The more you know, the easier it will be to explain the process to your child.

III.            Stanford test of achievement:

The Standard Of Excellence in achievement testing for 80 years, the Stanford Achievement Test Series now offers a state-of-the-art Tenth Edition to measure student progress toward high academic standards. The Stanford 10 multiple-choice assessment will help educators find out what students know and are able to do. Administrators will obtain reliable data to evaluate progress toward meeting content standards and high expectations. Teachers will identify and help.

IV.            Assessment scales - NAPLAN :

NAPLAN results are reported using five scales, one for each of the domains of reading, writing, and numeracy, and two for language conventions domain (one scale for spelling, and one for grammar and punctuation). Each scale spans all year levels from Year 3 to Year 9.

Each of the NAPLAN assessment scales describes the development of student achievement from Year 3 through to Year 9 along a ten-band scale. By locating all student results on a single scale that describes their performance and skills, the NAPLAN scales provide significant information about the performance of students.

The NAPLAN scales are constructed so that any given score represents the same level of achievement over time. For example, a score of 700 in reading will have the same meaning in 2012 as in 2010. This enables changes in literacy and numeracy achievements to be monitored over time.

The use of a common scale that spans Years 3, 5, 7 and 9 allows both the status of, and gain in, individual student achievement to be monitored and reported throughout each student’s years of schooling. A key feature of the national scales is that they also enable the achievement of all students to be monitored. It is possible to gauge the achievement of the most able group of students and, at the same time, to pay attention to the group of students who have yet to reach the agreed national minimum standard.

The scale for each domain is divided into ten bands to cover the full range of student achievement in the tests. The bands map the increasing complexity of the skills assessed by NAPLAN. Six of the bands are used for reporting student performance at each year level. The Year 3 report shows bands 1 to 6, the Year 5 report shows bands 3 to 8, the Year 7 report shows bands 4 to 9, and the Year 9 report shows bands 5 to 10.

   V.            School based assessments:

Many schools assess the progress of their pupils on a continuous basis by regularly measuring their performance against curricular goals and making the results available to classroom teachers. The results of such assessments can be used as a basis for part of the scoring of public examinations. Alternatively, they could become the sole basis for certification or selection.

School-based assessments are appealing because they offer immediate feedback to teachers on what pupils are learning and not learning, and thus become a basis for planning subsequent instruction. They are also more likely than standardized national tests to provide a full and accurate picture of what teachers are actually presenting to pupils. For example, such assessments can reflect practical topics that would not be anticipated by centralized examinations. They can also evaluate skills such as oral facility or the ability to organize a hands-on project that might not be captured by standardized tests.

Broadly speaking, national education systems employ four types of measurement devices to monitor student achievement and schools performance at the primary level.

Some developing countries, including Ethiopia and Lesotho, have built elements of school-based assessment into their public examination systems. Very few other countries, however, have followed their lead, and relatively little use is made of school-based assessment, which can impose considerable burdens on teachers and administrators.

§  Public examinations:

Most countries, including many developing ones, have some sort of public examinations that individual pupils take at the end of primary school and other transition points in schooling. These examinations serve the purposes of: selecting pupils to go on to secondary school, certifying graduates for entry into the job market, and fostering accountability for schools and school systems. Of these, selection is usually the most important.

Characteristics of the public examination systems of developed countries are well known. The fiercely competitive Japanese system, which inspired the term ‘examination hell,’ has spawned a small industry of juku, or private cram schools, that propose to improve a candidate’s chances of getting into a prestigious secondary school or university.

For the last thirty years the University of Chile has administered an Aptitude Test that screens applicants to universities in that country. Secondary school pupils in France take baccalauréat examinations in order to qualify to enter universities, while their counterparts in Germany sit for examinations that lead to the awarding of the abitur, or ‘exit credential,’ that serves a similar purpose. In both countries the growth of pupils obtaining the secondary school-leaving credential has led to a progressive erosion of its capacity to assure entry into the most sought after universities. Such universities now have their own examinations and other entrance requirements.

The United States, Canada and Sweden are the only major developed countries that do not have national public examinations. The United States has no national curriculum, and while the number has grown in recent years, only a minority – albeit a growing minority – of states sponsor tests to validate the awarding of a secondary school diploma. In the absence of a state-sponsored system, two private organizations sponsor examinations that American pupils take as part of the university admissions process.

Public examinations play an even more important role in developing countries, in Africa, Asia and the Caribbean, if only because alternative opportunities for advancement in such countries tend to be more limited. Virtually all African countries conduct examinations at the end of primary, lower-secondary and upper-secondary cycles, and countries in French speaking areas frequently require an additional exercise, such as end-of-year tests and competitive examinations for entry to subsequent levels of schooling. While most public examinations serve a certification function, the primary purpose is selection of pupils to move to the next level of the educational ziggurat. In Togo, for example, pupils take a highly competitive concours examination in order to proceed from the first to the second secondary cycle and again at the end of secondary schooling to move on to university or foreign study.

China, which invented the Imperial Examination System in the tenth century to assure that the ‘allimportant business of government must not be left to the accidents of either birth or wealth, is another country that uses public examinations to rationalize the distribution of scarce places. Pupils take examinations at the end of the nine years of compulsory schooling in order to qualify for the various forms of upper secondary education. Subsequent exams at the end of upper secondary schooling determine university entrance.

§  Uses of achievement assessment:

Ø  It provides basis for promotion to the next grade.

Ø  To find out where each student stands in various academic areas.

Ø  It helps in determination about the placement of the students in a particular section.

Ø  To motivate the students before a new assignment has taken up.

Ø  To know effectively the student is performing in theory as well as in clinical areas.

Ø  To expose pupil’s difficulties which the teacher can help them to solve.

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